Thursday, November 28, 2019

Prostate Cancer Essays (1002 words) - RTT, Prostate Cancer

Prostate Cancer Moiz Bhinderwala Class A, Mr. Haight What is cancer of the prostate? Cancer of the prostate, a common form of cancer, is a disease in which cancer (malignant) cells are found in the prostate. The prostate is one of the male sex glands and is located just below the bladder and in front of the rectum. The prostate is about the size of a walnut. It surrounds part of the urethra, the tube that carries urine from the bladder to the outside of the body. The prostate makes fluid that becomes part of the semen, the white fluid that contains sperm. Cancer of the prostate is found mainly in older men. As you get older, your prostate may get bigger and block the urethra or bladder, which can cause you to have difficulty urinating or may interfere with sexual functions. This condition is called benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and although it is not cancer, you may need surgery to correct it. The symptoms of BPH or of other problems in the prostate may be similar to symptoms for prostate cancer. Following are common symptoms of prostate cancer: weak or interru pted flow of urine, urinating often (especially at night), difficulty urinating, pain or burning when you urinate, blood in the urine, or nagging pain in the back, hips, or pelvis. Often there are no symptoms of early cancer of the prostate. {Samuel R. Denmeade, American Association for Cancer Research} Stage Explanation: {Judd W. Moul, Monographs in Urology 1995} - Stages of cancer of the prostate: Once cancer of the prostate has been found (diagnosed), tests can be done to find out if cancer cells have spread from the prostate to tissues around it or to other parts of the body. This is called staging. It is very important to know the stage of the disease to plan treatment. The following stages are used for cancer of the prostate:- Stage I (A) Prostate cancer at this stage cannot be felt and causes no symptoms. The cancer is only in the prostate and usually is found accidentally when surgery is done for other reasons, such as for BPH. Cancer cells may be found in only one area of the prostate or they may be found in many areas of the prostate. Stage II (B) The tumor may be shown by a blood test or felt in the prostate during a rectalexam, but the cancer cells are found only in the prostate gland. Stage III (C) Cancer cells have spread outside the covering (capsule) of the prostate to tissues around the prostate. The glands that produce semen (the seminal vesicles) may have cancer in them. Stage IV (D) Cancer cells have spread (metastasized) to lymph nodes (near or far from the prostate) or to organs and tissues far away from the prostate such as the bone, liver, or lungs. Recurrent Recurrent disease means that the cancer has come back (recurred) after it has been treated. It may come back in the prostate or in another part of the body. Prostate staging can also be described by using T (tumor size), N (extent of spread to lymph nodes), and M (extent of spread to other parts of the body). Treatment options for Prostate Cancer How cancer of the prostate is treated- Three kinds of treatment are commonly used: - Surgery (taking out the cancer) - Radiation therapy (using high-dose x-rays or other high-energy rays to kill cancer cells) - Hormone therapy (using hormones to stop cancer cells from growing). Surgery is a common treatment for cancer of the prostate. The cancer may taken out using one of the following operations: Radical prostatectomy removes the prostate and some of the tissue around it. The may be done surgery by cutting into the space between the scrotum and the anus (the perineum) in an operation called a perineal prostatectomy or by cutting into the lower abdomen in an operation called a retropubic prostatectomy. Radical prostatectomy is done only if the cancer has not spread outside the prostate. Often before the prostatectomy is done, a surgery to take out lymph nodes in the pelvis to see if they contain cancer is done. This is called a pelvic lymph node dissection. If the lymph nodes contain cancer, usually a prostatectomy will not be

Monday, November 25, 2019

Introduction to Green Architecture and Design

Introduction to Green Architecture and Design Green architecture, or green design, is an approach to building that minimizes the harmful effects of construction projects on human health and the environment. The green architect or designer attempts to safeguard air, water, and earth by choosing eco-friendly building materials and construction practices. Building a greener home is a choice- at least it is in most communities. Typically, buildings are designed to meet building code requirements, the  American Institute of Architects (AIA) has reminded us, whereas green building design challenges designers to go beyond the codes to improve overall building performance and minimize life-cycle environmental impact and cost. Until local, state, and federal public officials are persuaded to legislate green processes and standards- just like building and fire prevention practices have been codified- much of what we call green building practices is up to the individual property owner. When the property owner is the U.S. General Services Administration, results can be as unexpected as the complex built in 2013 for the U.S. Coast Guard. Common Characteristics of a Green Building The highest goal of green architecture is to be fully sustainable. Simply put, people do green things in order to achieve sustainability. Some architecture, like Glenn Murcutts 1984 Magney House, has been an experiment in green design for years. While most green buildings do not have all of the following features, green architecture and design may include: Ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and coolingEnergy-efficient lighting and appliances (e.g., ENERGY STAR ® products)Water-saving plumbing fixturesLandscaping with native vegetation and planned to maximize passive solar energyMinimal harm to the natural habitatAlternative renewable energy power sources such as solar power or wind powerNon-synthetic, non-toxic materials used inside and outLocally-obtained woods and stone, eliminating long-haul transportationResponsibly-harvested woodsAdaptive reuse of older buildingsUse of recycled architectural salvageEfficient use of spaceOptimal location on the land, maximizing sunlight, winds, and natural shelteringRainwater harvesting and greywater reuse You dont need a green roof to be a green building, although Italian architect Renzo Piano not only created a green roof but also specified recycled blue jeans as insulation in his design of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco. You dont need a vertical garden or green wall to have a green building, yet French architect Jean Nouvel has successfully experimented with the concept in his design for One Central Park residential building in Sydney, Australia. Construction processes are a huge aspect of green building. Great Britain transformed a brownfield into the site of the London 2012 summer Olympic Games with a plan for how contractors would build the Olympic village- dredging waterways, strict sourcing of building materials, recycling concrete, and using rail and water to deliver materials were just some of their 12 green ideas. The processes were implemented by the host country and overseen by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the ultimate authority for requiring Olympic-sized sustainable development. LEED, the Green Verification LEED is an acronym meaning Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design. Since 1993, the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) has been promoting green design. In 2000, they created a rating system that builders, developers, and architects can adhere to and then apply for certification. Projects pursuing LEED certification earn points across several categories, including energy use and air quality, explains USGBC. Based on the number of points achieved, a project then earns one of four LEED rating levels: Certified, Silver, Gold or Platinum. The certification comes with a fee, but it can be adapted and applied to any building, from homes to corporate headquarters. LEED certification is a choice and not a requirement by the government, although it may be a requirement in any private contract. Students who enter their projects in the Solar Decathlon are judged by a rating system as well. Performance is part of being green. Whole Building Design The National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) argues that sustainability has to be part of the whole design process, from the very start of the project. They devote an entire website to the WBDG- Whole Building Design Guide. Design objectives are interrelated, where designing for sustainability is just one aspect. A truly successful project is one where project goals are identified early on, they write, and where the interdependencies of all building systems are coordinated concurrently from the planning and programming phase. Green architectural design should not be an add-on. It should be the way of doing the business of creating a built environment. NIBS suggests that the interrelationships of these design objectives must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied - accessibility; aesthetics; cost-effectiveness; functional or operational (the functional and physical requirements of a project); historic preservation; productivity (comfort and health of the occupants); security and safety; and sustainability. The Challenge Climate change will not destroy the Earth. The planet will go on for millions of years, long after human life has expired. Climate change, however, can destroy the species of life on Earth that cannot adapt fast enough to new conditions. The building trades have collectively recognized its role in contributing to the greenhouse gases put into the atmosphere. For example, the manufacturing of cement, the basic ingredient in concrete, is reportedly one of the largest global contributors to carbon dioxide emissions. From poor designs to construction materials, the industry is challenged to change its ways. Architect Edward Mazria has taken the lead to transform the building industry from a major polluter to an agent of change. He has suspended his own architectural practice to concentrate on the nonprofit organization he established in 2002. The goal set for Architecture 2030 is simply this: All new buildings, developments, and major renovations shall be carbon-neutral by 2030. One architect who has taken the challenge is Richard Hawkes and Hawkes Architecture in Kent, United Kingdom. Hawkes experimental home, Crossway Zero Carbon Home, is one of the first zero carbon houses built in the UK. The house uses a timbrel vault design and generates its own electricity through solar energy. Looking to a Sustainable Future Green design has many related names and concepts associated with it, besides sustainable development. Some people emphasize the ecology and have adopted names like eco-design, eco-friendly architecture, and even arcology. Eco-tourism is a 21st-century trend, even if eco house designs might appear to be a bit non-traditional. Others take their cue from the environmental movement, arguably begun by Rachel Carsons 1962 book Silent Spring- earth-friendly architecture, environmental architecture, natural architecture, and even organic architecture have aspects of green architecture. Biomimicry is a term used by architects who use nature as a guide to green design. For example, the Expo 2000 Venezuelan Pavilion has petal-like awnings that can be adjusted to control the internal environment- just as a flower may do. Mimetic architecture has long been an imitator of its surroundings. A building can look beautiful and even be constructed from very expensive materials, but not be green. Likewise, a building can be very green but visually unappealing. How do we get good architecture? How do we move toward what Roman architect Vitruvius suggested to be the three rules of architecture- to be well-built, useful by serving a purpose, and beautiful to look at? Sources Gissen, David (ed.) National Building Museum. Big and Green: Toward Sustainable Architecture in the 21st Century. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002.How LEED Works. U.S. Green Building Council.Huseynov, Emir Fikret oglu. Planning of Sustainable Cities in View of Green Architecture. Procedia Engineering 21 (2011): 534–42. Print.Masood, Osama Ahmed Ibrahim, Mohamed Ibrahim Abd Al-Hady, and Ahmed Khamies Mohamed Ali. Applying the Principles of Green Architecture for Saving Energy in Buildings. Energy Procedia 115 (2017): 369–82. Print.Ragheb, Amany, Hisham El-Shimy, and Ghada Ragheb. Green Architecture: A Concept of Sustainability. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 216 (2016): 778–87. Print.Shaviv, Edna. Passive and Low Energy Architecture (Plea) Vs Green Architecture (Leed). 25th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. 2008. Design Objectives.  Whole Building Design Guide.Wines, James and Philip Jodidio. Green Architecture. Taschen, 2008.

Thursday, November 21, 2019

The Princess Bride Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Princess Bride - Essay Example As mentioned earlier, the video uses a narration told by a grandfather (Peter Falk) to his sick grandson (Fred Savage). With the keen interest in the cinematography, the narrative occasionally disrupts the delivery of the plot. When the young man falls ill, he is visited by his grandfather. In a bid to cheer the grandson up, the grandfather buys a story book entitled ‘The Princess Bride, a tale of the love between the beautiful Buttercup and the besotted Westley.† The story is centered mainly on the love broken when Westley is presumed to be dead during a sea voyage while in pursuit of his fortune (Goldman 16). This incident left his girlfriend, Buttercup, in a desolate state which pushed her to voting against love. Later on, Buttercup seems to have forgotten about the demise and the position held by Westley in her life. In this regard, she accepts a marriage proposal from Prince Humperdinck. He is presented as a wealthy and handsome prince who is also the heir to the Florin throne. The land was defined by fire swamps, intense quicksands, and unusually large rodents. Adding to the adventurous touch, the area is also characterized by exotic swordsmen, vile swamps, pirates, kidnappers, torturous, and giants. These set of environment provides a perfect platform from the adventure surrounding the love between Westley and Buttercup. Later, Buttercup is kidnaped in order to use her as leverage for war. This instance catalyzed the return of Westley as the Dread Pirate Roberts to save his love of his life. Westley sets up a team that includes a giant, a thief, a swordsman and hired helpers in a bid to save Buttercup from the three Outlaws. After he successfully rescues her, Westley is arrested and tortured by Humperdinck to his death. Meanwhile, Inigo and Fezzik find Westley’s body and take it to Miracle Max who resurrects him. Later, Inigo slays Rugen (his father’s killer), and Westley manages to save Buttercup from suicide. The main

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Critically evaluate the sustainability of the supply of phosphorus to Essay

Critically evaluate the sustainability of the supply of phosphorus to UK agriculture - Essay Example Inorganic phosphorus is available in the soil in form of insoluble mineral complexes (Schmidt & Schaechter, 2012, pp. 514). The insoluble form cannot be absorbed by plants. The organic matter accounts for 20-80% of phosphorus in the soil. Only 0.1% of the soluble phosphorus is available for uptake by plants. The current situation that involves loses at every step of phosphorus life cycle contributes to concerns about future supplies and water and soil pollution, both in the UK and worldwide. Efficiency in its production, use, recycling and minimization of waste could lead to major strides being made towards a sustainable phosphorus use. This would set the world on the path towards resource efficiency and ensure that phosphorus reserves are available for future generations. Globally, phosphorus resources are abundant and reserves are significant. However, there are a number of factors implying that the security of phosphorus should be monitored in the UK. UK has few phosphate bearing rocks reserves. In 2008, there was price volatility in which the cost of phosphorus rock rose by 700%, contributing to an increase in the price of fertilizers. Improving the use of recycled phosphorus in the UK and the world, as a whole, would help in safeguarding the supply and distribution of phosphorus both at regional and global level. Economically, diversifying phosphorus supply to the UK businesses, which rely on it, would improve their resilience faced by any future price instability and other trends that might aggravate their important dependency. Farming practices that help in feeding billions of people in the UK involve the use of phosphate fertilizers, manufactured from the phosphate rock. The rock is a non-renewable resource, and it is being used widely since the end of the 19th century. The dependence on the phosphate rock for food production calls for sustainable management practices to ensure that it is economically available to UK farmers. The use of phosphorus in th e UK agriculture is associated with several types of potential environmental impacts. Little amounts of phosphorus restrict plants growth, resulting in soil erosion. The use of too much phosphorus leads to losses of the nutrient to surface water, leading to eutrophication. More sustainable practices, for instance better management of field applications and enhanced phosphorus recycling, can contribute to improvements in productivity and reduced environmental impacts. UK scientists are starting to qualify in phosphorus production through food production and consumption systems. By estimation, only one-fifth of the mined phosphorus in UK is consumed as food by humans. The remaining portion is used in agriculture, retained in soil, released in the aquatic environment or lost in food waste. High crop yields in UK, fundamentally, depend on mined phosphate rock. In a small population, famers could adequately obtain agricultural yields by fertilizing the soil with phosphorus derived from h uman and other animals’ excreta. Population growth in the UK in the 18th and 19th centauries stimulated the production of food, resulting in rapid depletion of soil nutrients. Farmers, therefore, started using large amounts of off-farm sources of phosphorus, including guano, phosphate rock and bone meal. Phosphate rock, which was cheap and plentiful, became the widely preferred source. Consequently, UK farmers adopted new farming methods like planting high

Monday, November 18, 2019

Government Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Government Contracts - Essay Example The topics in this process include the persons who will be involved, how the process will be structured and where the real negotiations will take place. In the same way, the business has to outline the whole process of government contracting and come up with an effective way on how to approach it (Stein, 2011). It is normally realized that participating in government contracts involves a lot of bureaucracy and a lot of procedures which must always be adhered to by the business. All these factors must be known beforehand in order for the process to be effective. In any case, government contracts normally attract several parties and competition is therefore very stiff. The organization therefore needs to get acquainted with all the operations of the government relating to contracting. In the same way, every government contract comes with a series of rules and regulations which must be well understood. As a result, it is important to conduct the pre-negotiation in order to ensure that everything is taken into account and nothing remains unattended. Without conducting pre-negotiations, it is normally seen that negotiations are bound to fail or become counterproductive. The process helps in reducing much of the conflicts that are normally realized in the actual negotiations process (Alston, 200 5). Considering the importance of pre-negotiations prior to engaging in government contracts, it is normally viewed as part of the negotiations. Like the actual negotiation, pre-negotiation is normally conducted in specific stages in order to realize the objectives. The first stage involves definition of the problem; the second stage involves showing commitment to the negotiation while the third stage involves arrangement of the negotiation process. The participants of the actual negotiations are selected in the pre-negotiation stages and the boundaries of the actual negotiations are also effectively demarcated in the process. Most importantly, the agenda for the

Friday, November 15, 2019

The Relationship between Drugs and Crime

The Relationship between Drugs and Crime Drugs: their use, misuse and connections with crime In this dissertation I would like to argue that the study of crime and drug use is complex. There are a number of diverse factors that lead people to misuse drugs; these are a mixture of social, psychological and economic factors. Age and gender are significant statistically but insufficient research has been carried out to explore these issues fully. In this dissertation we will consider how people acquire a physical and psychological dependence on drugs. We will look at the pressure that can be placed upon susceptible individuals by dysfunctional families and peer pressure. Other factors that will be explored are whether personality traits or hereditary factors play a significant role in drug misuse and any consequent criminal behaviour. It is also clear that there is a correlation between crime and drug taking but again this link is not clear-cut. It will be necessary to consider if there are factors that predispose people to deviant behaviour and drug misuse or if one factor leads to another, and if so in what direction. We will consider at some length what is being done to ‘police’ drug crime and conclude that although much is being done it is a difficult and growing area, needing the intervention of specialised crime agencies, such as the Serious and Organised Crime Agency (SOCA). We will conclude by considering that a great deal more research needs to be done to help understand this complex issue but that there are a number of areas where useful investments could be made. The first is in the provision of more skilled people to act as drugs counsellors, in order to help lower demand for drugs; the second is to co-operate with international bodies in forming policy to fight the global drugs business and co-operate internationally with enforcement agencies; the third is for enforcement agencies in this country to act in partnership with each other and outside agencies to help disrupt the supply of drugs by removing its supplier and their money and reducing demand by helping drug-users to fight their addiction. Only when all these measures are acted upon will any significant headway be made in the ‘war on drugs’. Definitions Before we embark on our explorations, I would like to define how I will use the term drugs in this dissertation; I intend to define drugs as psychoactive drugs; this is any chemical that ‘alters perceptions and behaviour by changing conscious awareness’. However, I will exclude recreational drugs that are accepted by society, particularly alcohol. The reason for this is to enable me to achieve a tightly focused argument within the limits of the word count. There is a great deal of research on alcohol abuse; much of it mirrors the misuse of other drugs, however, there are some significant differences, which would broaden out the argument too much. In this dissertation we will restrict ourselves to drugs that are outside of society’s approval. The drugs we will consider in this work fall into four categories: depressants, stimulants, opiates and hallucinogens. The depressants include alcohol, barbiturates and solvents. Stimulants work by increasing the transmission of nerve impulses in the brain; they include cocaine, MDMA (better known as ‘ecstasy’), and amphetamines. The next group of drugs, opiates have been known since the time of the ancient Sumerians; in 4000BC they named the plant that produced resin from its unripe seedpods, the poppy. From this resin come the opiate drugs. These depress neural functioning, suppress physical sensation and responses to stimulation, which is why the codeine and morphine versions of this drug are used as substantial painkillers. Hallucinogens are the final group and contain LSD, PCP and cannabis. In this dissertation, once we have considered what leads initially to drug use and misuse, we will look at the link between drugs and crime. I have defined above what I mean by drugs, I’d now like to define what mean by crime. Such a definition is not easy to establish. There is perceivable difference between the definition made by a research psychologist and a lawyer; one has a highly conceptualised definition, the other a legal one. In this dissertation, I will use Glen Walters definition of crime. In his book Drugs and Crime in Lifestyle Perspective, he defines it as ‘a rule breaking behaviour that, if known to legal authorities, would result in the rule breaker’s being charged with a criminal offence punishable by law’. Size of drug problem It is not an easy task to accurately record how many people take these forms of drugs on a regular basis. A National Survey on Drug Use and Health, undertaken in the United States in 2003, revealed that an estimated 3.7 million people had used heroin at some point in their life. It also revealed that 119,000 had used heroin in the month before the survey. It is perhaps encouraging that the British Crime Survey reveals that drug taking in this country amongst 16 to 24 years olds has decreased since 1998, although it has increased in people form 16to 59. A United Nations report, published in 2005, estimated that 200million people, or approximately 5% of the world’s population, aged15-64, have used drugs in the last year. Whichever figure is correct, the number of people who abuse drugs is large. In terms of the criminal side of crime, this is an increasingly difficult problem to deal with. The illegal market for drugs is immense, which attracts the attention of large organised crime groups. It is likely that dealing with this problem will be a major part of the work done by the new Serious and Organised Crime Agency. A major area that will need to be looked at is how to disrupt the flow of drugs into the country; this will be a complex undertaking. Using Cocaine as an example, the drug originates in Latin America, principally Columbia. Its then taken first to a secondary country such as Spain, Portugal or West Africa, and finally funnelled into the UK via France, Belgium or the Netherlands. Although, Jamaica, the Caribbean Island closest to Latin America, which also has a significant immigrant community in England, provides a more direct route into this country for drugs. Clearly, this means that the Immigration and Customs and Excise departments also have an important part to play in policing this ‘industry’. The structure of the argument In chapter one we will look at the physical, psychological and environmental factors that lead to addiction of abusive substances. In chapter two I will consider whether there is a link between addiction and crime; we will also consider the implications of the illegal drugs market on policing. In chapter three I will discuss the prevention strategies that exist. Finally, I will conclude by explaining that although it is possible to come to some conclusions in our study, it is difficult to come to a definitive conclusion due to the amount of research material and its complex and often contradictory nature. Chapter 1: The road to drug use and misuse Introduction In this chapter we will consider the factors that lead to drug use and misuse. We will consider how attitudes in general concerning drug use have changed and how this has led to a greater acceptance of taking medication. We will also consider the psychological factors that could contribute to a person first falling prey to drug use. There is evidence that socioeconomic factors may be significant and we will explore this idea; we will include a consideration of the increasingly sophisticated ‘marketing’ methods used by the sellers of illegal drugs. Finally, we will conclude that although there is a great deal of information on the subject of why people begin taking drugs we will see that it is very difficult to draw a conclusion from the information available. We cannot offer conclusions only suppositions. Changing attitudes to drugs People have been using drugs for a great deal longer than it has been considered a problem. Tammy Salah suggests that drug use has been prevalent since ancient times (Salah, p6). However, significant major changes have occurred in the pattern of drug taking in the last four decades. In the 1950s very few people indulged in any form of drug, other than alcohol or cigarettes, however, this situation has gradually changed until we have become a drug using culture. A number of reasons have been suggested for this change. Some have suggested that the increase in taking drugs for medicinal purposes altered people’s general attitude towards taking drugs; as they acquired the perception that a pill could cure physical problems and mental illness, they accepted the possibility that a pill could be used to counter other problems; others advocated the idea that in the 1960sand 70s people, particularly Americans, were exploring new life-styles, many had an increased amount of leisure time and looked for new activities to fill them, one of those ways to fill the extra hours waste recreational use of drugs. Roads to addiction This increase in drug abuse led to problems with addiction as people acquired a physical dependence on these substances. Gradually, after taking the drug for some time, a person acquired a tolerance, so needed more and more of it to achieve the same effect. They also reached a stage where cessation of the drug in the system led to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms. At this stage they are said to have acquired physical dependency on the drug. However, this is not the only form of dependence that can arise; it is also possible to acquire a psychological dependence. This can occur particularly if a drug is used to reduce anxiety; even though no physical dependence occurs, the feeling of being without anxiety is addictive, which makes the drug addictive for psychological reasons. Dependence on alcohol can begin this way, the drink can acquire appositive reinforcement if it used to reduce stress, however, the more it is used the more the dependence becomes a physiological one. This is one of the most popular contemporary views of why humans self-administer potentially lethal drugs. It is believed that these chemicals activate the reinforcement system in the brain. Other natural-enforcers such as food, water, sex etc. also activate this system. It is possible to place drug users into at least two categories. One group of drug users take drugs for the effects they have on the senses; this group has been described as ‘novelty seekers’; the other group uses drugs to help them cope with other problems, they use drugs ‘as if they are anti-anxiety or anti-depressant substances’. One could conclude that this is the explanation for the apparent plethora of contradictory information as it would be counterintuitive to suggest that the same factors lead to these two models. Bio psychologists have done some of the most recent research into the development of an addiction. Their work is interesting because it is admix of physical and psychological scientific methods. It is important to consider their work, as it could have a significant effect on treatment and preventative programmes for the misuse of drugs. An article that appeared in the journal, Addiction, in 2001 suggests that addicts are not motivated to take drugs for the pleasure they provide, or the desire to avoid the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms, but because once drugs have been used the person develops changes in the part of the brain that render the ‘rewards systems’ and it becomes hypersensitive. These are not the parts of the brain that deal with pleasure or the euphoric effects of drugs but a subcomponent of reward; the study renamed them incentive salience or ‘wanting’. This leads the drug addict to develop compulsive behaviours in relation to drug-seeking. The researchers suggest that this sensitization leaves addicts susceptible to relapse long after they discontinue their drug use. It is also clear that some people become sensitised very quickly but others much more slowly. Another interesting aspect of this research is that the self-administration experience plays a significant part in the process, so that if the context is repeated in the future, even after drug misuse has ceased, the person will experience the compulsion to take the drug. This can happen years after the person has ceased to take drugs. A number of interesting facts resulted from this study that could affect our understanding and treatment of drug misuse. One interesting factor is that it is not saying that drug addiction is caused by chemical changes in the brain, what it is saying is that environmental factors have an equally significant effect as pharmacological ones. This factor is important as it has an effect on how to treat addiction. Another interesting factor revealed is that the brain processes involved in addiction are those that determine wanting not pleasure. This makes nonsense of the theory that the reinforcing factor connected to drugs is pleasure; drugs can become addictive in the absence of pleasure at taking them. This means that an unconscious motivational process can promote the act of taking a drug; this would explain why addicts, who report they are ‘miserable, that [their] life is in ruins, and that even the drug is not that great anymore’ are still ‘bewildered by the intensity of their compulsive behaviour’. However, it is interesting to note that even the authors of this study recommend caution; they accept that studies carried out on animals may not give the same results in human addicts. A great deal of interest has been shown by researchers concerning what, if any, personality characteristics make an individual more susceptible to become addicted to drugs. No individual personality type has been shown to predispose a person to drug misuse; however, people who score highly in tests for social conformity are less apt to misuse drugs. On the other hand, those who as children were rated by their class-mates as being impulsive, inconsiderate, lacking in ambition, with poor work habits, as adults were more likely to smoke, drink alcohol or take drugs than children not described as having those characteristics. Glen Walters concurs with this conclusion. He suggests the only positive evidence he has seen relates to some forms of early anti-social behaviour that affect a person’s future chance of abusing drugs and that this isn’t enough to provide a conclusive link. However, as already mentioned one must exercise caution concerning the conclusions reached from these studies as most of this research has been conducted on people with pre-existing problems, so one cannot be entirely certain that the characteristic did not result from the addiction rather tamper-date it. An obvious area to consider, particularly bearing in mind that the majority of drug misuse is done by the young, is the influence of, and relationship with parents. A study by Baer and Corridor in 1974suggested that children whose parents had showed little interest in them, or had used excessive physical punishment during their early childhood, were more likely to misuse drugs. Glen Walters confirms this when he quotes studies that reveal children who suffered parental rejection, either physical or mental, are more likely to indulge in deviant behaviour, including drug abuse. He suggests that a lack of attachment leads to an inability to fully ‘empathize with and relate to others’. Another study undertaken in 1972 revealed that people from home with conservative, traditional values were less likely to misuse drugs, than those from a more permissive and liberal home. However, it is not necessarily the parent’s values that contributed to the misuse of drugs but the potentially easier access to them. Ironically, coming from a ‘disrupted’ family (one where divorce or death has interrupted ‘traditional’ family life) does not seem to be factor in drug abuse in individuals. Parents are not the only group to have a significant influence, person’s peers can be equally important as an encouragement to misuse. The more substances a person misuses, the more friends they are likely to have who misuse substances themselves. However, again, interpretation of this can be problematic. It is difficult to know if these people have more friends who misuse because they have influenced them, or that the explanation is that they prefer to socialise with people with ‘pastimes’ most like their own. Walters concurs that although it appears that people are strongly influenced by their peers, it is difficult to provide evidence to confirm this conclusion. It is also important to bear in mind that although some people may be affected by the relationship with their parents (or lack of it) and influenced by their peers to act in a delinquent manner, the majority of people, under these circumstances, do not become delinquent or drug abusers, so these reasons are not sufficient in themselves to explain this anomaly. There are many links between deprivation, social exclusion and drug misuse. Amongst the factors that predispose someone to misuse drugs: the use of legal drugs in early life, school non-attendance, unemployment, history of public care, parent criminality and substance misuse, use of illegal recreational drugs. It is difficult to ignore the fact that ‘impoverished urban areas’ have higher rates of crime and drug abuse than more affluent areas. It almost certainly comes as no surprise that drug abuse rates are higher in areas where drugs are easily available, generally run-down urban areas. It is not difficult to believe that bleak circumstances can lead people to seek ‘escape ‘through drugs. Crime is also highest in these areas and it is easy to jump to the conclusion that these are linked; however, this link cannot be directly proved. The age of drug users is statistically significant, they are predominantly young and male, and may be getting younger. In the Home Office survey referred to above, arrestees who were drug users were more likely to be 25 and over, however, amongst men the numbers testing positive in the 20-24 age group was seen to be increasing significantly over the period of the research. This finding is repeated in the British Crime Survey. This demographic trend is also seen in the USA. Survey in 2003 by the National Institute on Drug Abuse recorded that in the previous year 314,000 people had used heroin; of that number the largest group were over 26, however, the same report recorded that from1995 to 2002 the number of new users varied each year from 121,000 to164,000 and of these 75% were 18 or over. More worryingly, the American survey recorded significant and stable levels of heroin abuse amongst school age children. The However, drug use seems to ‘peak’ at the age of 20. As we have seen, most of the users of heroin in the American survey were young men. The gender balance amongst drug users in England is also predominantly male, however, things could be changing, a Home Office crime survey showed a higher proportion of women testing positive for opiates than men 43% of women arrestees compared to 34% of men. Although the British Crime Survey suggests that the number of women taking drugs has stabilised. Tam Stewart suggests that their partners often introduce women drug users to drugs; they take them to ‘please’ their man. It has been argued that drugs have been ‘radicalized’ and that the perception is that black men are more likely to be offenders, and, therefore, more likely to be stopped by the police, than white men. It’s true that cannabis is widely used by the Caribbean community. However, much lower proportions of black men take heroin. The question that hasn’t been raised thus far is the question of hereditary. Glen Walters reports that a number of research papers, using data from family, twin and adoption studies, have been studied that seem to suggest that there is a genetic link in drug abuse. However, he concedes that these studies are difficult to interpret because it is difficult to take into account whether environmental influences have made a bigger impact than genetics. Salah also concludes that genetics may be a factor but that external and internal stimuli are more likely to account for drug use and abuse. Tam Stewart challenges all these explanations of what makes someone abuse drugs. She claims, ‘Heroin respects no barriers of class, race, religion or profession. There are junkies of 14 and 40’. She concedes that the majority of drug users come from poor and inadequate backgrounds; however, the fact that there are abusers from all categories suggests that poverty and inadequate family background cannot be the whole explanation. She suggests that one of the initial factors for people who take drugs is curiosity. Another factor that must be taken into account is that drug sellers are becoming more sophisticated in their marketing techniques and use disturbing methods of introducing people to the misuse of drugs. A ‘traditional’ method, bearing in mind drugs addictive qualities, was for street sellers to give ‘free samples’ to people who had previously never used illegal drugs. They soon became addicted to the substances and the seller had created a new buyer for his goods. However, with the increasing use of the Internet new ways of selling and marketing products have arisen. Buying a drug over the net is a much ‘easier ‘route into the drug scene, particularly for the socially shy and/or conservative middle-class teenager; the drugs are just as addictive but seem almost ‘legitimate’ when bought in the same way they buy their books and music CDs. However, a person acquires an addiction to drugs, it is clear that when they do it is not just a personal problem but also a societal one. We’ve looked at some of the reasons that may predispose someone to use and misuse drugs. In the next chapter we will consider what, if any, links there are between drug misuse and crime. Chapter 2: The links between drugs and crime Introduction Numerous studies have shown a link between drug abuse and crime; there are high crime rates amongst drug abusers and high drug-use rates among offenders. In this chapter we will consider the evidence that suggests link between drug misuse and crime. We will see how there is a great deal of evidence that shows a correlation but a link showing exactly how the two factors are related is much harder to find. We will also consider the types of crime most related to this problem and consider ways that have been used to tackle the problem. Causal links Earlier in this dissertation we have discussed how drugs are addictive and it has been suggested that it is this addiction that leads to crime. Drug use leads to ‘compulsive drug seeking’ and use. This compulsion fuels three types of drug related crime: crimes of supply, crimes committed to obtain money to buy drugs, or where the effects of drugs lead the user to act in a criminal way, for example dangerous driving or acts of aggression. The suggested theories to understand why people take drugs also falls into three categories: the moral model; the disease model and the behavioural model. There is statistical evidence of a link between drug use and crime. An on-going survey financed by the Home Office records the link between the misuse of drugs and offending. During the study 3,064 arrestees were interviewed and tested for drug use at eight police custody suites in England and Wales. This was repeated at the same sites two years later. Approximately 50% of those arrested were included in the study; juveniles and those arrested for alcohol related offences were excluded. The majority of those interviewed were white males and 90% of these agreed to undergo urinalysis. Urinalysis can detect drug use over the previous few days; in this study they were tested for six types of drugs were tested: Cannabis, opiates (including heroin), cocaine(including crack), benzodiazepines, amphetamines and methadone. Clearly these percentages are significant. A major finding of the research was that 65% of those arrested tested positive for drugs, around a third tested positive for opiates and/or Cocaine; less than 10% were positive for amphetamines and just under50% had injected heroin. Clearly this reveals a link between drugs and crime but on this alone they cannot be said to cause crime. During the interviews, however, around 90% of those who tested positive for class ‘A’ drugs reported they had committed property crimes as a result of their addiction in the last twelve months. Research carried out in other countries show similar findings. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics in the US, 50% of the inmates in US prisons in 1991divulged that they had used illegal drugs in the month prior to their arrest and 30% admitted that they were under the influence of an illicit drug when they committed their offence. An interesting finding is that offenders who abuse both illegal drugs and alcohol commit more criminal activities that those who only abuse an illegal drug. It is hard not to conclude that criminal activity is linked to drug taking. There are no clear causal links, however, between drugs and crime, despite much research on the subject that has shown that there are links between drugs and offending. A briefing paper for the Criminal Justice Social Work Development Centre for Scotland argues that ‘hanging around’ with those that do risky things, may ‘encourage or require the passage into various forms of crime to generate funds for purchasing drugs’. The paper argues that a further problem is that drug misuse leads to further financial and social difficulties; these in themselves generate more crime. A survey done amongst a Scottish young offender’s institution revealed that 95% of its inhabitants admitted taking illegal drugs. Yet again this Scottish survey does not give satisfactory explanation for this result. It has been suggested that there are two explanations for this apparent correlation between crime and drug abuse. The first suggests that drug use adversely affects a person’s ‘mood, judgement and self-control’; the second we’ve already mentioned, that is that the high cost of drugs leads the user to commit ‘economically oriented crime’. However, even these explanations are not entirely satisfactory. In the case of the first it is true that drugs can affect people in the way mentioned, however, not all people who take drugs experience these effects uniformly; second not everyone who takes drugs and experiences these symptoms commit crimes; therefore it is not unreasonable to argue that another factor must be involved. The second argument also holds true for the idea that the need to keep oneself supplied with drugs leads to crime. Glenn Walters tries to resolve this conundrum with his ‘lifestyle theory of human decision’. The three ‘Cs’ defines life styles: conditions, choice and cognition. In this theory he concludes that drug abuse and criminal activity are interrelated lifestyles. Walters believes that conditions do not cause drug abuse or crime directly but they influence behaviour by increasing or decreasing a person’s options in life. Walters concludes that choice is a very important explanation of the link between drugs and crime; criminal drug users behave in the way they do because they have made a rational choice that it is in their best interest to do so. Although he does not conclude that thesis the only explanation. It is clear from current research that young offenders have particularly high risk for developing ‘problematic drug use’, this is partly due to their use of class ‘A’ substances and to taking drugs intravenously. A Home Office survey, published in 2004, records that injecting drugs escalates both the health risks to the user and the social problems that go along with it. Amongst the arrestees studied for this report, around 65% used heroin and these were the most persistent offenders. Interestingly, one study in the US has suggested that there is no real correlation between drugs and crime. It is argued that because drug abuse and crime are not evenly spread across age groups, it is possible that they are not directly connected. There are a number of potential arguments for this. Firstly, is that it is possible drugs and crime follow a similar but coincidental age progression; secondly, it is possible that that these problems arise because of an underlying pattern of general deviancy; a final explanation is that the statistics show that the supposed link is actually a manifestation of low self-control making the person more liable to contravene social norms. However, none of these explanations are verified by research. Michael Hough in his review of drug related literature for the Home Office suggests that a distinction should be made between drug users and people with a heavy dependency, it is the latter group that is most likely to be involved in crime. Policing the problem Regardless of the causal links between drugs and crime, it undoubtedly causes major problems for the police service, enforcement agencies and the communities they serve. A Home Office report published in 2003 on the subject of ‘Crack’ begins by pointing out that ‘uncontrolled crack markets have a propensity for violence and intimidation that affects whole communities’. The report goes on to suggest that this problem haste be dealt with on two fronts: the supply of drugs to the drug addict has to be cut off and the demand for them reduced. During the last decade much work has been done in partnerships between the police another agencies, as these are considered the most successful ways to deal with the problem. These strategies aimed at reducing the demand for drugs will be discussed in the next chapter; in this section we will consider the response of law enforcement agencies. It is necessary at this point to consider in more detail what types of crime is committed by people misusing drugs. Much drug-connected crimes non-violent, more concerned with acquiring the money to fund the misuser’s addiction; these would include crimes such as theft, forgery or prostitution. However, CJSW’s briefing paper suggests that drug’s misuse can lead to violent crime in one of two ways; these are, (1) the effects of the drug can lead to aggressive behaviour, and, (2) violence can be used when committing the acquisitive crimes mentioned above. The paper makes it clear that these links are very much dependent on what type of drug is being abused. A study from the United States suggests that cocaine, particularly in the form of crack, can lead to violence, as can the use of barbiturates and amphetamines. However, overwhelming evidence suggests that the mostly likely addictive substance that will lead to violent outbursts from the abuser is alcohol. The area that would produce the best ‘return for money’ would be to stop the arrival of drugs into the country in the first place. The raw ingredients for most traditional drugs are not produced in this country; therefore, they have to be imported from abroad. Increasingly, the enforcement agencies in this country are assisting the international fight against drugs. Government is also helping address these issues, offering to help disrupt the opium harvest in countries like Afghanistan. The new SOCA has announced plans to have agents stationed abroad to assist in this disruption. Clearly, this is a major issue that requires serious measures. Much of the response to drug motivated crime has been met with moral outrage and dealt with accordingly; we will look at this in more depth later in the dissertation. The drugs industry is large and profitable, which is what makes it necessary to respond to this problem from a number of different appropriate directions. An article in the Economist published in 2001,states that ‘if only it were legitimate, there would be much to admire

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

research study on gender differences Essay -- essays research papers

Non-verbal communication is defined as communication without words. (Devito, 116) Throughout your interpersonal interactions, your face communicates many things, especially your emotions. (Devito, 125) Women are stereotyped in today’s society as to being more emotional than men in emotional settings. Not in all instances is this true, however, men feel they need to set a strong, domineering, display of their emotions and the way they react towards certain emotional situations. Gender display rules are a set of rules that usually either male or female follow in order to fit their specific gender script in society. It is stated in the textbook that women talk more about feelings and emotions and use communication for emotional expression more then men, and because of this females express themselves facially more than men. (Devito, 148) The research article I chose to summarize for part two of the textbook is titled, â€Å" Gender Difference in Facial Reaction to Fear-relevant Stimuli†. The focus of this was to discover whether females are predominantly more facially reactive than males, or whether females are more emotionally reactive in general, as reflected even by non-facial reactions such as autonomic responding and emotional experience. (Thunberg & Dimberg)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In previous research on nonverbal communication, results stated that females tend to be more emotional than men in emotional situations. (Thunberg & Dimberg) Research also found that imagery-induced emotions as well as visually presented emotional stimuli generate specific facial EMG responses that are interpretable as negative and positive emotional responses. Further studies with EMG testing, which is a test that evaluates reactions towards emotional activity, shows that women are more emotionally reactive in general. With these given results to previous research, the authors of this article presented two hypotheses, which they will use to explain the following study. These hypotheses are, 1. That when exposed to emotional stimuli, females are specifically more facially reactive, but not more reactive in other respects, and, 2, that females are more emotionally reactive in general. (Thunberg & Dimberg, 2) The main purpose of the study was to distinguish the resu lts between the two given hypotheses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ninety-six students from Uppsala ... ...n my family, I can speak that my family is different when it comes to gender display rules. When I was fourteen years old I was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes. When I found out the diagnosis, I cried for weeks, along with my mother, father, and brother. My father and brother were not ashamed to cry in the hospital with me. However, my family has always been emotional, and I am aware that every family and person is different. Thus, having an emotional family, gave me reason to think that it is not true that men don’t cry or show emotions. Of course, everyone is different, and after taking this class in concert with Family and Society I am on my way to a very open attitude about a lot of different aspects on different issues with Gender, families, communication skills, etc., where to before I was very objective to everyone and everything, except my own. References Devito, Joseph A. Messages Building Interpersonal Communication Skills. Hunter College of the City University of New York. United States, 2005 Thunberg, Monika, Dimberg, Ulf. â€Å"Gender Difference in Facial Reaction to Fear- Relevant Stimuli†. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior. New York: Spring 2000. Vol. 24, Iss1; PG 45